Modern History HSC Course - Russia and the Soviet Union Notes

Russia and the Soviet Union 1917-1941

Bolshevik consolidation of power
Lenin and the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917	Lenin opposes the patriotic calls for Russians to join the war effort against Germany Lenin returns to Russia thanks to a sealed train trip across German-occupied Europe Lenin announces “The April Theses” and calls for “all power to the Soviets” Following the failure of the July Days uprising, Lenin flees to Finland Kerensky’s Commander-in-Chief, General Kornilov, attempts to seize power Bolshevik popularity increases Lenin contacts the Bolsheviks and says the time is right to take power Lenin returns to Petrograd to convince the Central Committee on the wisdom of taking power Trotsky organises the Bolshevik November coup Lenin announces the formation of a Bolshevik government
main features of Communist (Bolshevik) ideology at the time of the revolution	For Lenin and other Russian Marxists, Marxist theory threw up some major problems: Though Marx believed he had explained the development of history, he had not been able to explain the process. What was an economically and socially backward country like Russia supposed to do? Afterall, for socialism to be reached, the capitalist stage has to be achieved first. Where did this leave Russia’s Marxists? Were they to dedicate their lives to achieving a goal which in their hearts they detested - capitalism - and which, had they been born in an economically advanced western country, they would be trying to destroy? Lenin’s major contribution to Marxist ideology was to provide solutions to these problems
social and political reforms of the Bolshevik government	Lenin’s first measure was the Peace Decree The second measure was the Land Decree There was a series of measures passed in favour of the workers There were madures to break the power and the wealth of the church There were moves to bring about equality between men and women The organisation of the armed forces was also democratised
significance of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk	The defeat of Germany at the hands of the allies in November 1918 meant that the provisions of the treaty became null and void It removed a major concern for the Bolshevik government - the German threat The treaty of Brest Litovsk was also a stimulus to the possibility of civil war, which with the benefit of hindsight was probably inevitable There were many pockets of resistance to the Bolsheviks The whole point of the Treaty of Brest Litovsk had been to end the war with Germany Brest Litovsk thus lead to the Allied intervention against the Bolshevik regime
the Civil War and aims, nature and impact of War Communism	Yudenrich: Led the White attack on Petrograd Denikin: White commander in the South until March 1920 Kolchak: Led the White forces moving west from Siberia Wrangel: Took over White forces in the South in March 1920 Makhno: The most important Green commander
the New Economic Policy (NEP)	Trotsky saw the Kronstadt Revolt as a major threat to the party’s hold on power (1917) Following Kronstadt, Lenin realised that there had to be a dramatic change in policy Russia was experiencing one of the most severe famines of the century There was reluctance → step back towards capitalism (went against all beliefs) The NEP was seen as a temporary measure → something unpalatable, necessary in the short term but certainly not to be seen as a long-term policy The short-term results of the NEP were impressive Provided food and production increased However, it did not offer an answer to Russia’s long-term development “... rapid economic growth.” - Christian
Stalin’s rise to  power
power struggle between Trotsky and Stalin and its immediate aftermath	By the end of the 1920s, Stalin was totally in control of the party: His main rival Trotsky had not only been expelled from the party but in 1929 was exiled from the Soviet Union → he eventually ended up in Mexico Other leading figures were removed from the Politburo and also expelled from the party Expulsion from the party was not seen as a permanent punishment, and those expelled were often allowed back in Stalin was now able to fill all key party positions with his own appointments, men and women who owed their careers to him Stalin was also tightening his grip on the GPU It was now full steam ahead in the pursuit of the modernisation and industrialisation of the Soviet Union, and the goal of catching up the west within ten years!
reasons for the triumph of Stalin as leader of the USSR	Control over the party structure Positions of power within the party Removed a sense of trust between other party members, and the public, for Trotsky
The Soviet State under Stalin
Stalin’s role in the Soviet state	Cult of the Personality: A term later coined by Khrushchev (got power after Stalin) to describe the unquestioned adulation of Stalin. → the idea that everything done by that personality, even if contradictory, is gospel. Mid 1920s, Communist Party and Russia taught to regard Stalin as akin to a God Stalin is always right, and everything was correct and beneficial for the Soviet Union If you didn’t agree, you would essentially be executed - especially if you were a party member Stalin ignores Lenin’s wishes for a simple funeral Stalin ensures he is heavily associated with these events Stalin doctors photographs to enhance his position and prestige Pravda [Bolshevik newspaper] becomes a vehicle for propaganda, praising Stalin’s role in consolidating Bolshevism Statues and posters of Stalin appear alongside Lenin’s The images used to show Lenin and Stalin together, to show that he was with him; this changes in the early 1930s to him being with the people By the late 1930s he becomes the ‘man of wisdom’ → his wisdom came from an early age, and that he was there to be the ultimate leader
introduction of collectivisation and industrialisation (Five Year Plans)	Five Year Plans - Focused on heavy industry Gains came with a great cost → millions came to cities where life was cramped, many lived in appalling conditions Consumer goods Incoming war with Germany kept the country focused on bullets Aim: Increase capital and feed the workers. (in order for industrialisation to take place) Plan: Used technology on the collectives (sovkhoz = e.g. tractors) → increased output, overseas sales, capital Industrialisation - Aim: Bring the Soviet Union to the modern world (to compete with other nations). Plan: The Five Year Plans 1st = Heavy industry → producing coal (electricity); making sure that they could utilise coal, steel, and iron.  1928-1932 2nd = Consumer goods → focusing on making products in order to sell to foreign investors and Soviets; increased quotas for heavy industry.  1933-1937 3rd = War focus → armaments, tanks, weapons.  1938-1941 “It was absolutely necessary for Russia, if we were to avoid periodic famines, to plough the land with tractors.” (Stalin) Using logic to explain the needs for collectivisation. “Many of them agreed to come in with us. … the great bulk were very unpopular and were wiped out by their labourers.” (Stalin on the kulaks) Trying to make it appear as though they are helping out the labourers by removing the kulaks. The 1st Five Year Plan → resistance from the kulaks played a negative impact on agriculture; 2nd Plan removed the kulaks and lead to an increase The short-term of collectivisation was negative, but the long-term impact was very positive for the Russian agriculture
Stalinism as totalitarianism	Features of Stalinism - Total politicisation of all aspects of life → weakens the political control of state and party because the dictator is seen as the embodiment of the country A social structure which at first allows mobility from working-class occupations into scientific, technical, administrative and intellectual professions but leads to the emergence of a privileged elite who attempts to keep access to such occupations within their families A highly centralised economy, in which all important areas are state-owned A personal dictatorship based on coercion, through the use of secret police and repression Tight political controls over cultural and artistic life An ossified conservative ideology which pays lip-service to earlier revolutionary ideals but which, in practice, replaces them
impact of purges, show trials and ‘the Terror’ on the Communist Party and Soviet society	Purges - Impact on Communist Party The armed forces were affected in a catastrophic manner By removing all those officers, Stalin had a tighter control over who he placed in those positions of power (loyalty and paranoia) Impact on Society By far the key target of the NKVD was party members but thousands of ordinary people ranging from factory workers to shop assistants were sucked into the whirlpool of the purges Media campaigns were launched exhorting people to seek out potential spies and saboteurs People were only too willing to come forward with names Particular targets were intellectuals and freethinkers Show Trials - Impact on Communist Party Vast arrest lists were drawn up and local NKVD officers were given quotas to fill; a fixed percentage of the quota arrest when be executed while a fixed percentage was given 10 yrs or more Impact on Society Non-Russian groups throughout the Soviet Union suffered enormously The terror combined with the impact of the economic changes led to a massive loss of life The Terror - Impact on Communist Party 1936 Yagoda, the head of the NKCD was replaced by Yezhov Yezhov, known as the “bloodthirsty dwarf” would spend 3 years as the head of the secret police before he was caught up in the terror and shot The terror spread to all branches: The party The economy The arts The armed forces The terror had totally transformed the Communist Party Many were killed or sent to the gulags In 1939 only 8% of members had been since 1920 Many therefore did not know what life had been like before Stalin This made implementation of laws a sinch The nature of the secret police had changed Cheka in 1917 had been formed to protect the revolution Late 1930s the secret police controlled the party → only Stalin stood above Impact on Society The terror unleashed on the country in 1937-38 carried his name: YEZHOVSHCHINA Innocence or guilt was irrelevant There was not a single area of Soviet life that was able to escape the terror Particular targets were intellectuals and freethinkers They were left with those who were unquestioningly loyal The terror, combined with the impact of economic change led to massive loss of life
impact of Stalinism on society, culture and the economy	Society - Cult of Stalin Created his own “correct” view of the past The change in the official approach to women became known as “the great retreat” Women were given civil, legal and electoral equality Abortion was legalised Young people were indoctrinated as education became widespread, encouraging criticism towards the bourgeois and revolutionary thought NKVD became involved with juvenile crime. The minimum age for death penalty lowered to twelve. Parents could be fined and have their children taken away. Soviet Union faced growing social instability: Birth rate steadily falling Increased levels of juvenile crime Soviet cities inundated with large numbers of homeless children Shift to a more conservative and conventional approach to schools (emphasis on the practical, ‘useful and non-political’ subjects “... Excessive introspection, psychoanalysis, self doubt and flights into the world of fantasy or the subconscious had no place in the new cultural milieu” ~ Martin McCauley→ social realism → socialist realism “... It is one thing to write good laws and another to create the social conditions to bring them to life.” ~ Bolshevik member, Yaroslavsky Culture - Stalin demanded that artistic endeavour be mobilised to promote the new Russia. Soviet artistic life changed after this. Writers, artists, filmmakers and composers were now unable to express feelings, emotions & individuality The cultural revolution led to historians being irrelevant and imprisoned during the new socialism world Late 1930s saw a revival of more nationalist themes, a development which was promoted more fully during the Great Patriotic War (1941-45) Stalin called for an end to the cultural revolution New elite in Russia “background with little appreciation for art, literature & music… Group had little time for Russian culture.” ~ Graham Gill “Under Putin, the order was given for school history books to be re-written highlighting Stalin’s achievements. … a historian investigating crimes committed by the former dictator was [recently arrested.” ~ Richard Galpin Economy - Women were given wider educational opportunities and encouraged to join the workforce, particularly during the economic transformation of the 1930s The 1930s was a period of massive upheavals with millions of workers on the move
Soviet foreign policy
changing nature of Soviet foreign policy: aims and strategies 1917–1941	The desperate years: 1917-21 Lenin’s first foreign policy actions concerned the war with Germany The result was the Treaty of Brest Litovsk Lenin correctly saw survival was the only real issue for the Bolsheviks They were outnumbered by superior White forces Western governments were clear in their intentions The 1920s: Normalisation of relations The end of the civil war saw the USSR normalise relations with its immediate neighbours In 1920 and 1921 friendship treaties were signed In 1921, commercial agreements were signed with Britain and Italy In 1922, Russia attended a European economic conference in Genoa Anglo-Soviet relations seemed like a yo-yo The 1923-4 Labour government established diplomatic relations but Soviet interference in British affairs further strained relations By 1930 Russia had relations with all the great powers except the US and it was even attending League of Nations conferences Foreign Policy Focus 1929 - Early 1930s: World Revolution With the onset of the Great Depression (1929), the traumas experienced by western nations briefly revived hopes of world revolution Through the Comintern, Stalin ordered communist parties in western countries to break links with moderate socialist parties This proved disastrous as it weakened the opposition (Nazi Germany, Mussolini's Italy etc) to the rise of fascism Historians have suggested that if moderate socialists and the communists been able to work together, it might have proven possible to prevent the accession to power of Hitler and the Nazi Party Foreign Policy Focus Mid 1930s: Cooperation With Anti-Fascist Groups However, in the late 1930s, Stalin realised that his hopes of forming a united front with the west against the threat of German Nazism was going to fail because: In western ruling circles, like Britain, Nazism was seen as a lesser evil than Bolshevism There remained an enormous distrust of the Soviet Union The Soviet Union was isolated and vulnerable Foreign Policy Focus Late 1930s: Safe-Guarding Russia Against the Nazis While neither trusted the other, the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact was formed in 23 August, 1939 because it meant the following for Stalin: He could take his share of Poland A buffer would be created between Germany and Russia Germany would exhaust itself fighting in the west and Russia would be able to consolidate its positions at home and buy space and time
impact of changing ideology on Soviet foreign policy 1917–1941	Nov 1917 - June 1918 Officially there are calls for World Revolution and genuine hope for outbreaks of revolution in Germany and western nations Survival is all important The Bolsheviks are in very weak position and it's crucial to establish peace with Germany. This results in the Brest Litovsk June 1918-21 As hope for the revolution in the west fades, the party focuses on winning the civil war, enforcing War Communism and dealing with revolts like Tambov and Kronstadt Having won the Civil War, there is no intention of launching a revolutionary war against the west - national interest is winning out 1921-1929 Ideology takes a back seat as national recovery takes precedence. Inside Russia, Trotsky’s support for “Permanent Revolution” fails to garner support as Stalin’s notion of “Socialism in One Country“ more accurately captures the national mood. Trotsky’s defeat in the struggle for power and his eventual expulsion from the party and the USSR sees the end of a serious fanning of revolution in the west. In 1921 the 10th Party Congress introduces NEP. This retreat from socialist principle is driven purely by the need for the country to recover. The defeat of the left in the struggle for power ensure that Soviet national economic development has priority over ideology. There is a need for stability and this is reflected in the promotion of normal state to state relations. By the end fo the decade, the Soviet Union has diplomatic relations with all major powers except the US. Economic agreements are important, seen in the Genoa Conference and the Treaty of Rapallo. Relations with Germany are promoted though politically and ideologically the two countries are poles apart. 1929-1933 The onset of the depression fans the flames of ideological fervour. The western capitalist system looks in serious trouble as unemployment levels explode, banks fail and economies totter. Stalin orders the Comintern to avoid cooperation with other political parties. Let the system collapse. Fascist regimes are welcomed because it is believed that this is the final stage before workers’ revolution. Torn apart by collectivisation and driven by the goal of industrialisation, national interest is clearly predominant over ideological crusading. If ideology plays any role it is in national reconstruction, not in the pursuit of world revolution. 1933-1938 The pursuit of ideological goals has disappeared. The Soviet Union joins the League of Nations and attempts to form military alliances with nated capitalist powers. Ideological goals matter for little as the Soviet Union seeks to form a united front against Germany. The country is weak and vulnerable. This is even more so during the period of the purges. The ideological goal is the construction of socialism at home. This requires trade with the capitalist west and peace in Europe. The defence and security of the nation is paramount. 1938-1939 The Soviet Union is unrecognisable as a socialist country as it steadily steers towards a rapprochement with Nazi Germany. National defence and security dictate coming to terms with Germany. The Third Five Year Plan focuses on the military build-up. Ideology has ceased to have any relevance to Soviet foreign policy. 1939-1941 With war raging in Europe, only national self-interest matters. There is no propaganda/ ideological talk of war sparking socialist revolutions Stalin’s goal is simply to keep Russia out of the war. He hopes that the Nazis will get bogged down in the west. He maintains ties with Germany, honours the Non-Aggression Pact, seeking not to antagonise Hitler.

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